ECUMENISM
(A HISTORICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND PASTORAL STUDY)
JOHN ROMUS
Introduction
The
nuance of the words “ecumenism” and its adjective, “ecumenical”, have been
changed over the centuries. The word ‘ecumenism’ is derived from the Greek word
oikoumene, which literally means, “that which pertains to the whole
inhabited world.” Oikoumene is used in this sense in the gospels that
“[The] good news of the Kingdom will be proclaimed throughout the world (oikoumene)
as a witness to all the nations”(Mt 24:14).
Initially
it was used in this sense in the life of the Church. Thus the first few
Councils of the Christian Church, namely Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381),
Ephesus (425), and Chalcedon (451), etc., were called “ecumenical Councils” as
they were seen to represent the whole universal Church. This usage was still in
current as when Vatican II is referred to by Roman Catholics as an ecumenical
Council. In this sense, the adjective “ecumenical”(oikoumenikos) was a
cognate to katholikos (catholic), which means universal. Just as the
appellation “Christian” was a nickname given to the disciples of Christ in
Antioch, so also the Gnostics called the members of the apostolic Church as
“Catholic”(katholikos) because the apostolic Church believed in the
“universal” range of redemption of all in Christ which was opposed to the
narrow sense of Gnostic belief which stood for the redemption of the “souls”
of few “elect” ones only and not even
their bodies (Torrance, 16-17).
There is
a second meaning of the word “ecumenical.” It means that which pertains to
Christian unity. Thus the “ecumenical movement” refers to contemporary
Christian movement for the restoration of unity of all Christian Churches in
the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. Vatican II praised this movement
as growing “through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit”(UR, 1). Therefore,
ecumenism its in contemporary usage refers to the dynamic concern for the unity
and renewal of the Churches and of all things in Jesus Christ, which has
emerged as the most distinctive feature of the twentieth-century Christianity.
The foundation of this movement is theological. It goes back to the prayer of
Jesus for unity: “May they all be one. Father, may they be one in us, as you
are in me and I am in you”(Jn 17:21).
Seen from
the ecclesiological point of view, the Church is sent into the world to be the
efficacious sign and instrument of the reconciling grace of Christ, drawing all
people into the unity of faith, hope and love, across all the barriers of sin
and human divisions. It is in view of the perfect Kingdom of the future, which
is a communion of all peoples of the nations. The Church, therefore, is called
to be the sacrament of unity (LG, 1), a unity that is at once visible and
invisible, human and divine.
Yet from
the very beginning of the life and mission of the Church, there were divisions
and eventually large bodies of Christian communities were separated from one
another, and continue to this day to live in disunity. This is a scandal of
Christian disunity, and the problem and challenge of ecumenism, which seek to
restore the unity as willed by Christ among Christians in one visible communion
(koinonia), in the one Church of Christ.
The
communion ecclesiology that found its official expression in Vatican II offers
possibilities to approach the theology of ecumenism in a new light. Its
theological vision is no longer limited by a firmly established Catholic Church
to which all must return, but starts from the one divine plan for human race
and the common Christian calling in Jesus Christ to live in one visible
communion that prefigures the final communion to which all nations are called
at the end of time. This mystery of communion of all peoples is sacramentally
present in the Catholic Church, but is also expressed, in various degrees, in
other Christian communities.
Thus, the
solution to the problem of Christian unity is no longer sought by merely
inviting other Christian communities to join the Catholic Church, but by
integrating them into the one Church of Christ whatever values are found also
in non-Catholic Christian communities. The aim must be, therefore, the fullness
of Christian life, comprising all traditions. Because “whatever is truly
Christian is never opposed to the genuine values of the faith; indeed it can
always help to a better realisation of the mystery of Christ and the
Church”(UR, 4).
In the
Decree on Ecumenism, Unitatis Redintegratio, Vatican II has
described ecumenism as follows, which contains its definition:
Everywhere
large numbers have felt the impulse of this grace [i.e., of remorse over
division and longing for unity], and among our separated brethren also there is
increases from day to day a movement, fostered by the grace of the Holy Spirit,
for the restoration of unity among all Christians. Taking part in this
movement, which is called ecumenical, are those who invoke the Triune God and
confess Jesus as Lord and Savior. Hey join in not merely as individuals but
also as members of the corporate groups in which they have heard the gospel,
and which each regards as his church and, indeed, God’s. And yet, longs that
there may be one visible church of God, a church truly universal and sent forth
to the whole world that the world may be converted to the Gospel and so be
saved, to the glory of God”(UR, 1).
The
Decree (UR) indicates some essential features of the ecumenical movement,
namely, that it the work of the Holy Spirit; that it is an ecclesial
(community) movement and that it is allied with the missionary nature of the
Church. The Holy Sprit works beyond the boundaries of any Church and brings
them to unity for the salvation of the world. Because of its pneumatological
and ecclesiological roots, ecumenical movement is part of systematic
theological reflection.
Hence, our study has five chapters. Chapter one provides a histological
and doctrinal narrative of the divisions within Christianity. Chapter two deals
with the history of the ecumenical movement for the restoration of Christian
unity. Chapter three presents theological methods and models of ecumenism as
proposed by various Churches. Chapter four studies the Roman Catholic
contribution to ecumenism and explains the theology of ecumenism as propounded
in the Conciliar document Unitatis Redintegratio and encyclical Ut
Unum Sint. Chapter five deals with ecumenism in India and
explains the pastoral guidelines dealing with ecumenical movement in the
country.
Chapter: I
Division
Within Christianity:
Historical
And Doctrinal Perspectives
1. Introduction
There is little doubt that in apostolic times the
word ‘Church” had twofold sense, as it referred both to the local and to the
universal Christian community, so that the unity of the Church existed within
the pluriformity of local Churches. There was awareness among Christians that
they participated in a shared memory of Jesus and a common confession of faith.
The word describing this unity was Koinonia (communion), a
word used in connection with the experience of Christian sharing during
apostolic times, and which during patristic times came to designate the Church
(Ecclesia) itself. The reality of koinonia implied that
the local Churches had their particular identities within the one universal
Church. What bound the various local Churches together was the common sharing
in the one apostolic faith. Over time, however, the unity of the Church
suffered serious setbacks. This chapter delineates the various stages, which
led to the fragmentation of the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church.
2. The Early Fragmentation of the Apostolic Church
2.1. The Nestorian Church
The first serious setback to the communion of the
Church occurred in the early 4th century with Arianism which seemed
to deny the true divinity of Christ and consequently of the spirit. The view
was rejected in the council of Nicaea (325 C.E.). In the 5th century
there emerged a trend of thought in the church of Antioch whose teachings
influenced the Church of Constantinople. This school spoke of a moral rather
than a “hypostatic” union of the human and the divine natures in Christ.
Consequently they wanted Mary to be called Christotokos, i.e., Mother of
Christ rather than Theotokos, mother of God. Nestorius, the Patriarch of
Constantinople, was thought to be propagating the above view though it is not
proved that in fact he deviated heretically from the true faith. Nevertheless
the above doctrine has come to be known with the title “Nestorianism” and
Nestorius was condemned and deposed by the council of Ephesus in 431 C.E.
The Church is
Persia known as the Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East was
thought by many to have accepted the ‘Nestorian’ Christology at the synod held
at Beth Lapat in 486 in 486 C.E. because it seemed to do greater justice to the
divinity and humanity if Christ. With that decision this Church was considered
as having separated itself from the ancient Catholic Communion of Churches with
accepted the christological formula put forward by the council of Ephesus.
The Roman and Persian empires were not on the
friendliest of terms, and since in those times there was a close association of
state and religion, the ‘Nestorian’ teaching took a firm hold in Persia while
the Conciliar decisions found ready acceptance in the Roman Empire. Thus the
Assyrian Church of the East came to be isolated from the rest of the Christian
world.
Today it has become to be accepted that the opposition
between the so-called ‘Nestorian’ Christology and the ‘Orthodox’ Christology of
the council of Ephesus was rather a matte of confusion of terms, most
especially with regard to ‘person’ and ‘nature.’ Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV,
leader of the 40,000 strong Assyrian Church of the East has expressly asked
that the term ‘Nestorian’ be no longer applied to his Church. On 11 November 1994
a common christological declaration between the Catholic Church and the
Assyrian Church of the East was signed in Rome by pope John Paul II and
Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV, which declares that the divisions brought about in the
past were in large part to misunderstandings (ND, n.683, 684).
2.2. Monophysite Churches
Sometime after the council of Ephesus another school
of thought emerged, this time in the Church of Alexandria, known as the
Alexandrian School. In opposition to the ‘Nestorian’ stress on the diversification
or duality of the divine and the human natures in Jesus Christ, this school,
under an Alexandrian monk called Eutyches, taught that in Jesus Christ there is
only one nature (monophysis), the divine nature. According to him, the
human nature of Jesus ceased to exist when the divine person assumed it just as
a drop of honey falling into the sea dissolves in it.
This school was fond of speaking of the one nature of
God, the word incarnate, to designate the one person of the Word. This teaching
was known as ‘Monophysitism’ [one nature]. The immediate consequence
would be to call into question the truth of the incarnation and the
consubstantiality of Christ’s humanity with ours, especially with regard to his
redemptive sacrifice on the cross. Monophysitism was rejected by the council of
Chalcedon in 451 C.E., which declared that in Christ there is a single person
in two natures, without confusion or mixture (ND, no.614, 615).
However,
some Churches did not accept the Caledonian formula on the plea that it goes
back to the ‘Nestorian heresy’ of separation of the two natures. These Churches
are known as the non-Caledonian Churches or Monophysite Churches because of
their non-acceptance of the Caledonian formula. Today they are also called
‘Eastern Orthodox Churches’, and are not in communion with the Patriarchate of
Constantinople. These are
the Armenian Apostolic Church, Coptic Orthodox Church, Ethiopian Orthodox
Church, Syrian Orthodox Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, and Eritrean
Orthodox Church.
A common declaration between pope Paul IV and
Patriarch Mar Yacob III of the Syrian Orthodox Church is 1971 declares: “there
is no difference in the faith they profess concerning the Mystery of the Word
of God made flesh and become really man, even if over the centuries
difficulties have risen out of the different theological expressions by which
this faith expressed” (AAS 63[1971], 814; cf. Chia, 125).
2.3. Orthodox Churches
A third blow to the ancient communion of Churches was
the rupture that the ancient communion of Churches was the rupture that took
place about the beginning of the second millennium in the relation between the Eastern
and Western Churches. The symbolic date commonly given to this event is
16 July, 1054 C.E., when the delegates of Pope Leo IX (who had died three
months earlier!) and Patriarch Michael Cerularius Of Constantinople mutually
excommunicated each other on the question of the unilateral acceptance by the
Pope of the insertion of the Latin Filoque (“and from the Son”)
into the originally Greek Niceno-Constantinople Creed. [In fact, a
clarification by the Pontifical Council for Christian Unity of 13 September
1995, issued the following clarification on the filioque controversy:
The creed with the ‘filoque’ insertion is only a liturgical adaptation
of the Nicene Creed but the Greek original without the insertion remains for
all Churches the normative text of the Christian Trinitarian faith](ND, pp.
161-162).
But this question of the filoque was only the
proverbial last straw in the gradual separation between the Latin West and the
Greek East with different theological styles, which had already begun at least
a couple of centuries earlier. The division had been influenced by the fall of
Roman Empire in the fifth century, the cultural and political distancing of the
Eastern and Western parts of the old empire, the eruption of the Germanic
tribes in the North and of the Islamic power in the East.
One
marked feature, specially developed in the Byzantine circles, was the understanding
of the Church as a “Conciliar Fellowship” based on the Eucharist as the source
and centre of the unity of all Local Churches, which are ‘autocephalous’
(self-governing). In this conciliarity, the Church Rome or Constantinople holds
only a primacy of honour and not of jurisdiction. On the other hand, the
ecclesiology that was developing in the West was centred on the power of the
Pope as the Supreme Head of the Church. The ecclesiology of the Orthodox
Churches, which is of autocephalous model, gave less importance to the primacy,
infallibility and jurisdiction of the Pope as the successor of Peter. Today the
Patriarchate of Constantinople is called Ecumenical Patriarchate,
which includes many national Churches with varying degrees of ecclesiastical
status in autonomy. These are designated as “Orthodox Churches”.
Their positions are enumerated below:
Autocephalous Churches: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem,
Russia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Georgia, Cyprus,
Greece, Poland, Albania, Czech & Slovak Republic, America.
Autonomous
Churches: These do not have full independence. They are the
Mount Sinai, Finland, Japan, and China.
Canonical Churches, which have a special link with the Patriarch of Constantinople by
receiving the Holy Chrism and confirmation of their bishops from
Constantinople: Carpatho-Russian Orthodox, Ukrainian American, Russian, Western
Europe, Albanian American, Byelorussia in North America, Ukrainian in Canada,
Ukrainian in U.S.A.
Churches of Irregular
Statues: Old believers, Russian Orthodox outside Russia, Ukrainian-Kiev
Patriarchate & Ukrainian Autocephalous, Byelorussian Autocephalous (Chia,
125-126).
3.
Modern Division: The protestant Reformation
Much more than by the schism of the East and West, the
unity of the Church was seriously shaken by the Reformation that took
place in Europe in the middle of the second millennium. Not all the reasons
were theological. With the invention of the press and growth in education there
emerged the humanism of the Renaissance and a new middle class, made powerful
by the economic prosperity arising from commerce especially with the newly
discovered colonies. There was also a growth of national consciousness all over
Europe and a strengthening of the power of the royal houses of political power
as against the power of the clergy. Such economic and social factors explain in
part resistance to the Roman influence on Northern Europe. These factors need
to be studies in course on Church History. There was also a long-standing call
within the Church for a reform of customs and specially those of the Papal
Court. The proverbial last straw was the preaching about papal “indulgences” to
finance the construction of the Renaissance churches in Rome.
3.1. The Lutheran Church
In Germany, Martin Luther’s protest in 1517 against
the scandal of indulgences did not aim at dividing Church but at reforming it.
But when in 1521 he was both excommunicated by the Pope and outlawed by the
German Emperor, his theological positions hardened. In the doctrine of “justification
by faith alone”, Luther saw a new understanding. The Church is not identifiable
through external acts of religion. It is a community, which has one mind and
heart of faith. In other words, the Church is found where “the gospel is
rightly taught and the sacraments are rightly administered according to the
Gospel” (Article seven of Augsburg Confession).
In such a Church the ministerial priesthood is not
essentially different from the common priesthood of the faithful. The
episcopacy does not differ from the presbyteriate and the papacy is not
required. The veneration of saints, penitential acts, popular devotions,
pilgrimages, etc., are contrary to the New Testament teaching on “justification
by faith alone and not by works.” Furthermore, in the understanding of the
Eucharist as sacrifice, Luther repudiated the concept of transubstantiation.
Although Luther wanted only to reform the Church, the
division became inevitable when the German princes backed the reform movement
as a way of ridding themselves of the power of the emperor and the political
control of the pope. Moreover, the Church’s hierarchy was not ready to
implement the necessary changes. Thus we have the Lutheran Churches. In 1947
these churches formed a Lutheran World Federation, which now has more than a
hundred member churches and its secretariat headquarters in Geneva (ibid, 127;
Goosen, 74).
3.2. The
reformed Presbyterian churches
The
reform movement begun by Luther was carried still by his contemporaries
Huldreich Zwingli in Zurich and John Calvin in Geneva. Zwingli did away with
much of the ceremonial and externals of religion and developed a new order of
liturgy, which consisted principally of scripture, sermon and prayer: the bread
and wine were no longer placed on an altar but on a bare table in the nave of
the church. Whereas, in the line with Catholic thinking, Luther insisted that
Christ is bodily present in the Eucharist (the word “is” to be taken
literally), Zwingli regarded the Eucharist as no more than a commemorative service
in which a community shows allegiance t Christ and remembers gratefully the
event of the cross. He argued that the physical reception of a spiritual gift
is impossible (Chia, 127; Gossen, 75-79).
Later
on, Calvin set out to write a definitive treatise on the nature of the church
according to the Reformation principles: The institutes of the Christian
Religion. He taught that Christ imparted to the Church the gift of the fourfold
ministry of pastors, teachers (or doctors), elders (or presbyters) and deacons.
The doctrine of “predestination,” more characteristic of Calvin but actually
developed by his followers, speaks of the ‘divine decree” to either eternal
life or to death, bases on God’s infinite foreknowledge. Thus the teachings of
Zwingli and Calvin took a distinct turn vis-Ã -vis Lutheranism.
The churches subscribing to these teachings came to
be referred to as Reformed or Presbyterian Churches. In
1875 a world Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) was formed which today links
close to 200 churches fro the Reformed Presbyterian tradition.
3.3. The Radical Reformation
Still in the same 16th century, the
Reformation initiated by Luther passed into the third phase,
which can be called Racial Reformation. These radical reformers saw the
identity of the Church as involving a complete break with anything suggestive
of a Roman and Papist connection. They also emphasize a commitment to the
pursuit of personal holiness leading to the believer’s baptism (therefore, for
rejecting the validity of infant baptism, accepted by most other Churches).
Another distinctive feature is the separation of Church members from the world
affairs; small groups gatherings for the study of the Word, prayer and the
breaking of Bread along the languages of the New Testament “house communities”.
The Hutterites, the Mennonites, the religious Society of Friends (Quakers), the
seventh Adventists and the Disciples of Christ were the first to begin the
radical reform.
3.4. The Anglican Church
The fourth
Phase of the reformation was the change that took place in England in
the same century. After resisting the influence of the reformation for a number
of years Henry VIII decided for personal reasons to break his ties with the
Pope. After this the Church of England has understood itself as a sort of Via
Media between Catholicism and Protestantism, acknowledging the necessity
of scripture, tradition and reason in opposition to the protestant reliance on
scripture alone. However, the Roman Catholic Church declared the Anglican
orders null and void in 1896. Today the Anglican Communion is made up of 37
autonomous national Churches, all of them in communion with the Archbishop of
Canterbury (Gossen, 80-81).
4. New Churches of Reformed Tradition
The fifth phase of the reformation could
be seen, between the 17th and 20th centuries, in the
emergence of renewal movements within Anglicanism and the Reformed Churches
This resulted in the creation the Baptists, Methodists, Salvation Army, the
Evangelical and the Pentecostal Churches.
Thus by the end of the second millennium we are
presented with a divided Church: the Eastern Church itself composed of a
variety of autonomous or semi-autonomous churches, and the western Church
divided into many different bodies, each claiming to be the true Church of
Christ. The former group if often referred to in a general way as the “oriental
Churches,” some of which, however, are in communion with Rome are generally
designated as the “protestant Churches.” Some of the smaller and recent groups
of the firth phase of the reformation are at times called “sects” in
distinction with the “mainline Churches” which are older and characterized by
theological positions that take more seriously the faith traditions of the
Church.
4.1. Congregational Churches
Another important group, which developed under the
Puritan influence, is the Congregational Churches. They came into existence in
England between 1580 and 1590 under the leadership of Robert Browne, John
Greenwood and Henry Barrow. Having a “congregational” notion of church, they
vision the church as a freely gathered community in a particular place. Each
congregation is self- governing and independent. Thus, in the earlier days they
were known as “independency” or “independents.” The congregation is free to
choose its ministers and to formulate its liturgies, prayers, etc. A group of
congregation migrated to North America is 1620 and were responsible for found
in Harvard and Yale Universities. Congregationalists have ordained pastors but
without an Episcopal system. They practice the two sacraments of Baptism and
Eucharist. They believe in the real spiritual presence of Christ in the
Eucharist. They are not very numerous today, and many Congregationalists have
need into the United Churches (Chia, 129).
4.2. The Rise of Free Churches
The aftermath of the Protestant Reformation of the 16th
century saw the proliferation of Christian denominations, free Churches and
Sects in England and Europe. The break-up of medieval Christendom and the rise
of nationalism provide the context for the development of these new Churches.
These Churches then spread to America mainly through missionary activities and
the emigration of peoples. The term “sect” is used to distinguish these new
Churches from the more established mainline churches. No derogatory connotation
is alluded whatsoever.
4.2.1. The Baptist
The Baptist Church had its origins in 17th
century England, with Puritanism as background. When the Puritans were
persecuted in England many of them took refuge in Europe, especially in
Holland. John Smith (1554-1612) and Thomas Helwys (1550-1616), who were also
refugees, became their leaders. When the climate became conducive, they
returned to England where they founded the Baptist Congregations. They are
called Baptist in view of their specific doctrine of Baptism. Like the
Anabaptists they reject infant Baptism and insist on adult Baptism by
immersion.
In view of the difference which emerged with regard to
the doctrine predestination, several divisions have evolved and they go by names
such as General Baptists, Particular Baptists, etc., The American and British,
particular Baptists are the most influential divisions. Baptists are organized
on completely democratic lines, with emphasis on the principle of religious
freedom. Infant baptism, they believe, infringes upon the freedom of the child.
They practice the two sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist and have ordained
ministers, but not one the Episcopal system. The total number of Baptists in
the world today probably exceeds 50 million (ibid).
4.2.2.
Congregational Churches
Another
important group, which developed under the Puritan influence, is the
Congregational Churches. They came into existence in England between 1580 and
1590 under the leadership of Robert Browne, John Greenwood and Henry Barrow.
They envisioned that the Church is freely gathered community in a particular
place. Therefore it is a Congregation. Each congregational is
self-governing and independent. Thus, in the earlier days they were known as “independents.”
The Congregationalists migrated to North American 1620 and were responsible for
founding Harvard and Yale Universities. Congregationalists have
ordained pastors but without an Episcopal system. They practice the two
sacraments of baptism and Eucharist. They believe in the real and spiritual
presence of the Christ in the Eucharist. They are not very numerous today, and
many Congregationalists have merged into the United Churches (ibid).
4.2.3.
The Quakers or The Society of Friends
The Quakers had their origins in England in the middle
of the 17th century when Puritanism reached its climax. They
repudiated all ecclesiastical institutions and called themselves “seekers”
as they expected a new prophet to be sent by the Holy Spirit. George Fox
(1924-1691) emerged as their leader. He underwent a conversation and became an
itinerant preacher, announcing the Gospel of “the inner light.”
According to Quakers, to be a Christian meant to
possess “the inner light” and thus to be born again in the Holly
Spirit. The Quakers were known to have attacked all the organized Churches and
repudiated the practice of the sacraments and even questioned the absolute
authority of the Scriptures. The only authority they submit to is that of “the
inner life,” which they believe to be nothing more than the Holy Spirit. The
Quakers are also well known in their fight for humanitarian causes. They
received the nickname “Quakers ” probably from the phenomenon of quaking or
shivering during their prayer sessions. They rejected ordained ministries. They
have silent meetings which they call “waiting upon the Light.” They are strong
in their witness to the freedom of Spirit and the personal inner experience,
which they see as the essence of religion (ibid, 130).
4.2.4.
The Methodists
The Methodist Church emerged from a revivalism within
the Anglican Church. John Wesley (1703-1791) led the Methodist movement who was
a fellow at Lincoln College, Oxford. At Oxford, Wesley and some of his friends
formed a Holy Club and led a very strict and methodical life; whereupon they
were given the nickname “Methodists.” Earlier as an Anglican missionary to
America, Wesley had become acquainted with the Moravian Brethren
and was deeply influenced by them. Upon his return to England, Wesley
experienced a spiritual conversion in 1738, after which, he went around
preaching revival. He founded several Methodist Societies or Associations,
which then became a separate Church upon Wesley’s death.
Methodism spread rapidly in the Americas and to many
of the English speaking countries. Some Methodist Churches became Episcopalian
while others followed non-Episcopal forms of ministry. Sanctity of believers
(Methodist Holiness) consists in a strict and rigorous life and spontaneous
prayers in liturgy. Following the practice
of the Moravian Brethren, they also adopted the Agape meals or “the love
feasts.” Today, the Methodist number about 40 Million (ibid).
4.2.5.
The Disciples of Christ
The idea of One Ecumenical Church based on New
Testament Christianity was preached in North America by two Irish Presbyterian
(Calvinist) Pastors, Thomas Campbell (1763-1854) and his son, Alexander
Campbell (1788-1866). It was a call for Church unity on the basis of the
fundamentals such as, adult Baptism, the Bible as the sole authority, and faith
in Christ. The movement brought together many from the Presbyterian and Baptist
circles. But later, the movement became a separate Church, they are also known
as the “Churches of Christ.” They are a small group today,
present mainly in the English-speaking world (ibid).
4.2.6.
The Old Catholics
They are a group separated from the Roman Catholic
Church immediately after the First Vatican Council in 1870. Ignaz von Doellinger led the Old Catholics
movement. Ignaz was professor of Church History in the University of Munich,
Germany. The Old Catholics Church rejected the first Vatican’s definition of
Papal Infallibility. In 1872, they held a congress in Koeln, Germany, and
organized themselves under the name of the Old Catholic Church teachings, practices,
and ministries. The adherents of this Church eventually adopted also some
Protestant teachings and customs. They are a very small group found mainly in
Germany and Holland (ibid).
4.3. New Christian
Sects and Movements
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries witnessed a wave
of Christian sects and movements. The majority of these new sects originated in
the western world, especially, in the United States of America in the new
climate of freedom and experimentation. The people’s dissatisfaction with the
scientific and secular culture coupled with the inability of the established
mainline Churches to respond adequately to these dissatisfactions also provided
the impetus for the emergence of these sects. It has to be emphasized from the
outset that the term “set” is not used here with any projective connotation. It
is merely a distinction made between these new Churches and movements and the
more established mainline Churches. This dissatisfaction, it is acknowledged,
is still a subject of much debate. The following are some of the New Christian
Communities (sects) and Movements.
4.3.1.
The Holy Catholic-Apostolic Church
This sect which called itself as the “Holy catholic
Apostolic Church” had its beginning in England and Scotland in the early 1930s.
It was a result of the revivalism among the Anglicans. Prayer circles were
formed for a new outpouring of the Holy Spirit led by the Henry Drummond,
Headword Irving and others. This sect is also sometimes called “Irvingites.
“ In these prayer groups the members experienced the gift of prophecy, gift of
tongues and other signs much like those given in the primitive apostolic age.
They also developed strong convictions about the immediate Second Coming of
Christ, believing Christ Would establish a thousand – year reign of peace.
As a preparation for this, they sought to re-establish
the apostolic structure and ministry of the Early Church. Thus, in 1935 they
chose the “12 Apostles” as the successor of the earliest
apostles. These 12 were assigned definite regions and countries for their new
mission. Hence the sect became known as the “ Catholic Apostolic Community or
Church”. They also adopted elements from the Catholic Church, charismatic and
Apocalyptic or Adventist Church of the last days (ibid, 131).
With the death of the last of their 12 apostles a
crisis set in, as the Second Coming of Christ had not occurred. A debate ensued
as to whether they should appoint new apostles. This led to the formation of “The
New Apostolic Church” in North Germany where new Apostles
were appointed and a revival took place. There are various groups of these “Apostolic
Sects” today in different parts of the world and they number a little
more two million.
4.3.2. Brethren
The origin of the Brethren was in Dublin (Ireland) and
Plymouth (England). The most important desire of this Church Community (Sect)
is that of simplicity in Christian fellowship over against the institutional
and authoritarian structures of the Church of England. By 1833 John Nelson
Darby became their leader, and hence they were also known as “Darbyites.”
Filled with the apocalyptic fervour of the Second
Coming of Christ, Darby desired to unite people of all denominations to await
the return of the Lord. But gradually the members became a separate group with
a pietistic, fundamentalist and Adventist out look. They practice adult baptism
and the Lord’s Supper, which can be presided over by any member of the
community and not necessarily by an ordained minister.
