world songs

NOTHING TO LOSE (Michel learns)

There are times when you make me laugh

There are moments when you drive me mad

There are seconds when I see the light

Though many times you made me cry

There’s something, you don’t understand

I want to be your man

Cho. Nothing to lose your love to win

Hoping so bad, that you’ll let me in

I’m at your feet, waiting for you

I’ve got time and nothing to lose

There are times when I believe in you

These moments when I feel close to you

There are times I think that I am yours

Though many times I feel unsure

There’s something you don’t understand

I want to be you man.  (repeat cho)

            I’ll always be around you

            Keep an eye on you

            Cause my patience is strong

            And I won’t let you run

            Cause you are the only one (Cho)

THAT’S WHY   

Baby won’t you tell me why’

There’s sadness in your eyes

I don’t want to say good bye, To you.

Love is one big illusion,

I should try to forget

But there’s something left in my head.

You are the one who set it up

Now you are the one to make it stop

I’m the one who’s feeling lost, right now

Now you want me to forget

Every little thing you said

But there’s something left on my head.

Cho. I won’t forget, the way you’re kissing

         The feeling so strong,

         We’re lasting for so long

But I’m not a man your heart is missing

That’s why you go away, I know.

You were never satisfied

No matter how I tried

Now you wanna say good bye to me

Love is one big illusion,

I should try to forget

But there’s something left in my head.

Sitting here all alone in the middle of nowhere

Don’t know which way to go

There ain’t so much to say between us

There ain’t  so much for you,

There ain’t  so much for you, Any more

                                    (Repeat Cho.)

MY HEART WILL GO ON (Celine Dion)

Every night in my dream, I see you, I feel you,

That is how I know you go on …

Far across the distance, and spaces between us,

You have come to show you go on.

Cho. Near far, wherever you are

         I believe that the heart does go on

         Once more you open the door

         And you are here in my heart

         And my heart will go on and on.

Love can touch us one time,

And last for a lifetime

And never let go till we’re one

Heart is when I love you

One true time I hold you

And my life will always go on.

                        Repeat Cho.

You’re here, there’s nothing I fear.

And I know that my heart will go on.

We’ll stay forever this way

You are saved in my heart

And my heart will go on.

HOTEL CALIFORNIA

1. On a dark desert highway, cool wind in my hair

Warm smell of calitus, rising up through the air.

Up  ahead in a distance, I saw a shimmering light

My head grew heavy and my sight grew dim

I had to stop for the night,

There’ she stood at the door way, with a mission bell

And I was thinking into myself,

This could be heaven or this could hell.

Then she lits up the candle, and she showed me the way.

There were voices down the corridor,

Though I heard them say                   

         Welcome to the hotel of California

         Such a lovely place, such a lovely place,

         Such a lovely place,

         There’s many rooms at the hotel California

         Any time of the year, any time of the year

         You can find it here.

2. Her mind is stiffened and twisted, she got amerced bring

She got a lot of pretty pretty boys, that she calls her friends

How they dance in the courtyard, sweet summer sweat

Some dance to remember, some dance to forget

So I call up the captain, please bring me my wine

(she said) we haven’t had that spirit here since 1969.

And still those voices were calling from far away.

Wake you up in the middle of the night,

Just to here them say,

            Welcome to the hotel California, such a lovely place

         Such a lovely place, such a lovely place.

         They are living up at the hotel of California

         What a nice surprise, what a nice surprise,

         Bring your abilise

Mirrors on the ceiling, they find company on  ice,

And she said, we are all just prisoners here,

Of our own divice.

In the master’s chamber, they gathered for a feast,

They stabbed it with their sticky knives

But they just can’t kill the beast.

Last thing I remember (I was) running for the door

I had to find my passage back, to the place I was before.

“Relax” said the night man, we are programmed to the sea

But can change out any time you like,

But you can never leave.

SEASON IN THE SUN (West life)

Good-bye to you my trusted friend,

We’ve known each other since we were nine or ten

Together we’ve climbed hills and trees

Learn of love and ABC’s

Skin our hearts and skinned our knees

Good bye my friend it’s hard to die

When all the birds are singing the sky

Now that the spring is in the air

Pretty girls are everywhere,

Think of me and I’ll be there.

         We had joy we had fun

         We had seasons in the sun

         But the hills and that we climbed,

         Were just seasons out of time.

Good bye Papa please pray for me,

I was the black sheep of the family

You tried to teach me right from wrong.

Too much wine and too much song

Wonder how I got along

Good bye Papa it’s hard to die

When all the birds are singing in the sky

Now that the spring is in the air

Little children everywhere,

When you see them I’ll be there.

  ##   We had joy we had fun,

         We had season in the sun

         But the wine and the song,

         Like the season have all gone (repeat ##)

Good bye Michelle my little one,

You gave me love and help me find the sun

And every time that I was down

You would always come around

And get my feet back on the ground.

Good bye Michelle it’s hare to die

When all the birds are singing in the sky

Now that the spring is in the air

With the flowers everywhere

I wish that we could both be there.

LARGER THAN LIFE

I may run and hide

When you’re screamin’ my name, all right

But let me tell you now

There are prices to fame, all right

All of our time spent in flashes of light.

Cho. All you people can’t you see, can’t you see

         How your love’s affecting our reality.

         Every time we’re down

         You can make it all right

         And that makes you larger than life.

Looking at the crowd

And I see your body sway, C’mon

Wishing I could thank you in a different way, C’mon

‘Cause all of your time spent keep us alive.

                                                (repeat Cho.)

All of our time spent, keep us alive

                                                (repeat Cho.)

Yeah, every time were down

Yeah, you can make it right

Yeah, and that’s what makes you larger than life.

                                                ((repeat Cho.)

SHOW ME THE MEANING OF BEING LONELY

Show me the meaning of being lonely

So many word for the broken heart

It’s hard to see in a crimson love

So hard to breathe, walk with me, and may be

Nights of light so soon become

Wild and free I could feel the sun

Your every wish will be done.  They tell me …

Cho. Show me the meaning of being lonely

         Is this the feeling I need to walk with

         Tell me why I can’t be there where you are

         There’s something missing in my heart.

Life goes on, as it never ends

Eyes of stone observe the trends

They never say forever gaze

Guilty roads to an endless love

There’s no control, are you with me now.

Your every wish will be done.  They tell me ….

                                    (repeat Cho.)

There’s nowhere to run

I have no place to go

Surrender my heart, body and soul

How can it be you’re asking me to feel

The things you never show

You are missing in my heart

Tell me why I can’t be there where you are                                 

                                    (repeat Cho.)

                                                                                          

I WANT IT THAT WAY

Yeah—eh- yeah—

You are my fire, the one desire.

Believe when I say, I want it that way

But we are two worlds apart,

Can’t reach to your heart, whey you say

That I want it that way.

  ##   Tell me why, ain’t nothing but a heartache

         Tell me why, ain’t nothing but a mistake

         Tell me why, I never wanna hear you say

         I want it that way.

Am I your fire, your one desire

Yes I know, it’s too late

But I want it that way

                                    (repeat ##)

Now I can see that we’ve fallen apart

From the way that it used to be, yeah..

No matter the distance, I want you to know

That deep down inside of me….

        

         You are my fire… the one desire

         You are (you are, you are, you are)

         Don’t wanna hear you say

         Ain’t nothing but a heartache

         Ain’t nothing but a mistake

         (Don’t wanna hear you say)

         I never wanna hear you say, I want it that way.

Tell me why, ain’t nothing but a heartache

Tell me why, ain’t nothing but a mistake

Tell me why, I never wanna hear you say

(Don’t wanna hear you say) I want it that                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            way. (repeat it).

WHO CHALI

Woh Chali, woh Chali, dekho pyaar ki gali

Use rooke na ko-I, woh chali, woh chali.

Na na na meri jaan, dkho jaana na wahan,

Koi pyaar ka lutera, loote na, meri jaan.

 ## Woh Chali, woh Chali, she’s found the love that’s real

Now her wounded heart is healed finally, finally,

Woh Chali, woh Chali, leaving all her tears behind,

Only love in her mind finally, finally.

Though she tries but she can’t hide,

All her joy wrapped up in side.

She can’t wait to reveal and tell you how she feels.

Well this time it feels so right,

there’ll be no more lonesome nights

Good times are here to stay,

Love will shine on everyday

                                    (repeat ##)

In my heart there is some pain,

Don’t ask me why, I can’t explain.

May be I did love her too, now there’s nothing I can do

On the other side of town, her love is waiting on

As she waving me good bye,

I think my heart is gonna cry

                                    (repeat ##)

Woh Chali, woh Chali, dekho pyaar ki gali

Use rooke na ko-I, woh chali, woh chali.

Na na na meri jaan, dkho jaana na wahan,

Koi pyaar ka lutera, loote na, meri jaan.

                                    (repeat ##)

 BREAKING MY HEART

I’m on the floor, counting one minute more

No one to break, the silence,

staring into the night, akk alone but that’s allright

Is the feeling deep inside, I don’t like.

  ##   There is no excuse my friend

         For breaking my heart, breaking my heart again

         This is where our journey ends

         Your breaking my heart again.

Here on my bed, counting the words you’ve said

They linger in the shadow.

Coming home late at night, drunk again but that’s all right

It’s the look in your eyes, I don’t like.

                                    (repeat ##)

I AM GONNA BE AROUND

It’s been so long since we take the time,

To share word from deep inside us,

We’re own spinning our wheel,

But you know how I feel

Well since the first time I took your hand

My love for you has just been growing,

You always seem to understand, you know how I am.

         I’m gonna love you till the end,

         I’m gonna be your very true friend

         I wanna share your ups and downs,

         I’m gonna be around

When you’re alone coz I’m away,

Don’t be sad don’t be afraid

I’m gonna turn my thought to you

Like I always do (Repeat Cho)

Catch you when you fall, Hold you when you’re down

Sharing every moment, I wanna show you all I do

I believe I found a miracle in you. (Repeat cho)

MY LOVE

An empty street, an empty house, a hole inside my heart

I’m all alone and the rooms are getting smaller

      I wander how, I wonder why

      I wander where they are

      The days we hade the song we sang together (oh yeah)

            An oh! My love,

            I’m holding on forever

            Reaching for the love that seems so far.

      So I say a little prayer

      And hope my dreams will take me there

      Where the skies are blue

      To see you once again, my love

            Over seas from coast to coast,

            To find the place I love the most

            Where the fields are green

            To see you once agajn, my love.

I try to read, I go to work, I’m laughing with my friends

But I can’t stop to keep myself from thinking.

I wander how, ……

     

      To hold you in my arms, to promise you my love

      To tell you from the heart, You’ve all I’m thinking of.

                                                            (Interlude)

      I’m reaching for the love that seems so far.

      So I say …….

Class note Ecumenism

ECUMENISM

(A HISTORICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND PASTORAL STUDY)

JOHN ROMUS

Introduction

The nuance of the words “ecumenism” and its adjective, “ecumenical”, have been changed over the centuries. The word ‘ecumenism’ is derived from the Greek word oikoumene, which literally means, “that which pertains to the whole inhabited world.” Oikoumene is used in this sense in the gospels that “[The] good news of the Kingdom will be proclaimed throughout the world (oikoumene) as a witness to all the nations”(Mt 24:14).

Initially it was used in this sense in the life of the Church. Thus the first few Councils of the Christian Church, namely Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (425), and Chalcedon (451), etc., were called “ecumenical Councils” as they were seen to represent the whole universal Church. This usage was still in current as when Vatican II is referred to by Roman Catholics as an ecumenical Council. In this sense, the adjective “ecumenical”(oikoumenikos) was a cognate to katholikos (catholic), which means universal. Just as the appellation “Christian” was a nickname given to the disciples of Christ in Antioch, so also the Gnostics called the members of the apostolic Church as “Catholic”(katholikos) because the apostolic Church believed in the “universal” range of redemption of all in Christ which was opposed to the narrow sense of Gnostic belief which stood for the redemption of the “souls” of   few “elect” ones only and not even their bodies (Torrance, 16-17).

There is a second meaning of the word “ecumenical.” It means that which pertains to Christian unity. Thus the “ecumenical movement” refers to contemporary Christian movement for the restoration of unity of all Christian Churches in the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. Vatican II praised this movement as growing “through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit”(UR, 1). Therefore, ecumenism its in contemporary usage refers to the dynamic concern for the unity and renewal of the Churches and of all things in Jesus Christ, which has emerged as the most distinctive feature of the twentieth-century Christianity. The foundation of this movement is theological. It goes back to the prayer of Jesus for unity: “May they all be one. Father, may they be one in us, as you are in me and I am in you”(Jn 17:21).

Seen from the ecclesiological point of view, the Church is sent into the world to be the efficacious sign and instrument of the reconciling grace of Christ, drawing all people into the unity of faith, hope and love, across all the barriers of sin and human divisions. It is in view of the perfect Kingdom of the future, which is a communion of all peoples of the nations. The Church, therefore, is called to be the sacrament of unity (LG, 1), a unity that is at once visible and invisible, human and divine.

Yet from the very beginning of the life and mission of the Church, there were divisions and eventually large bodies of Christian communities were separated from one another, and continue to this day to live in disunity. This is a scandal of Christian disunity, and the problem and challenge of ecumenism, which seek to restore the unity as willed by Christ among Christians in one visible communion (koinonia), in the one Church of Christ.

The communion ecclesiology that found its official expression in Vatican II offers possibilities to approach the theology of ecumenism in a new light. Its theological vision is no longer limited by a firmly established Catholic Church to which all must return, but starts from the one divine plan for human race and the common Christian calling in Jesus Christ to live in one visible communion that prefigures the final communion to which all nations are called at the end of time. This mystery of communion of all peoples is sacramentally present in the Catholic Church, but is also expressed, in various degrees, in other Christian communities.

Thus, the solution to the problem of Christian unity is no longer sought by merely inviting other Christian communities to join the Catholic Church, but by integrating them into the one Church of Christ whatever values are found also in non-Catholic Christian communities. The aim must be, therefore, the fullness of Christian life, comprising all traditions. Because “whatever is truly Christian is never opposed to the genuine values of the faith; indeed it can always help to a better realisation of the mystery of Christ and the Church”(UR, 4).

In the Decree on Ecumenism, Unitatis Redintegratio, Vatican II has described ecumenism as follows, which contains its definition:

Everywhere large numbers have felt the impulse of this grace [i.e., of remorse over division and longing for unity], and among our separated brethren also there is increases from day to day a movement, fostered by the grace of the Holy Spirit, for the restoration of unity among all Christians. Taking part in this movement, which is called ecumenical, are those who invoke the Triune God and confess Jesus as Lord and Savior. Hey join in not merely as individuals but also as members of the corporate groups in which they have heard the gospel, and which each regards as his church and, indeed, God’s. And yet, longs that there may be one visible church of God, a church truly universal and sent forth to the whole world that the world may be converted to the Gospel and so be saved, to the glory of God”(UR, 1).

The Decree (UR) indicates some essential features of the ecumenical movement, namely, that it the work of the Holy Spirit; that it is an ecclesial (community) movement and that it is allied with the missionary nature of the Church. The Holy Sprit works beyond the boundaries of any Church and brings them to unity for the salvation of the world. Because of its pneumatological and ecclesiological roots, ecumenical movement is part of systematic theological reflection.

Hence, our study has five chapters. Chapter one provides a histological and doctrinal narrative of the divisions within Christianity. Chapter two deals with the history of the ecumenical movement for the restoration of Christian unity. Chapter three presents theological methods and models of ecumenism as proposed by various Churches. Chapter four studies the Roman Catholic contribution to ecumenism and explains the theology of ecumenism as propounded in the Conciliar document Unitatis Redintegratio and encyclical Ut Unum Sint. Chapter five deals with ecumenism in India and explains the pastoral guidelines dealing with ecumenical movement in the country.

Chapter: I

Division Within Christianity:

Historical And Doctrinal Perspectives

1. Introduction

There is little doubt that in apostolic times the word ‘Church” had twofold sense, as it referred both to the local and to the universal Christian community, so that the unity of the Church existed within the pluriformity of local Churches. There was awareness among Christians that they participated in a shared memory of Jesus and a common confession of faith. The word describing this unity was Koinonia (communion), a word used in connection with the experience of Christian sharing during apostolic times, and which during patristic times came to designate the Church (Ecclesia) itself. The reality of koinonia implied that the local Churches had their particular identities within the one universal Church. What bound the various local Churches together was the common sharing in the one apostolic faith. Over time, however, the unity of the Church suffered serious setbacks. This chapter delineates the various stages, which led to the fragmentation of the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church.

2. The Early Fragmentation of the Apostolic Church

2.1. The Nestorian Church

The first serious setback to the communion of the Church occurred in the early 4^th century with Arianism which seemed to deny the true divinity of Christ and consequently of the spirit. The view was rejected in the council of Nicaea (325 C.E.). In the 5^th century there emerged a trend of thought in the church of Antioch whose teachings influenced the Church of Constantinople. This school spoke of a moral rather than a “hypostatic” union of the human and the divine natures in Christ. Consequently they wanted Mary to be called Christotokos, i.e., Mother of Christ rather than Theotokos, mother of God. Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, was thought to be propagating the above view though it is not proved that in fact he deviated heretically from the true faith. Nevertheless the above doctrine has come to be known with the title “Nestorianism” and Nestorius was condemned and deposed by the council of Ephesus in 431 C.E.

 The Church is Persia known as the Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East was thought by many to have accepted the ‘Nestorian’ Christology at the synod held at Beth Lapat in 486 in 486 C.E. because it seemed to do greater justice to the divinity and humanity if Christ. With that decision this Church was considered as having separated itself from the ancient Catholic Communion of Churches with accepted the christological formula put forward by the council of Ephesus.

The Roman and Persian empires were not on the friendliest of terms, and since in those times there was a close association of state and religion, the ‘Nestorian’ teaching took a firm hold in Persia while the Conciliar decisions found ready acceptance in the Roman Empire. Thus the Assyrian Church of the East came to be isolated from the rest of the Christian world. 

 

Today it has become to be accepted that the opposition between the so-called ‘Nestorian’ Christology and the ‘Orthodox’ Christology of the council of Ephesus was rather a matte of confusion of terms, most especially with regard to ‘person’ and ‘nature.’ Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV, leader of the 40,000 strong Assyrian Church of the East has expressly asked that the term ‘Nestorian’ be no longer applied to his Church. On 11 November 1994 a common christological declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East was signed in Rome by pope John Paul II and Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV, which declares that the divisions brought about in the past were in large part to misunderstandings (ND, n.683, 684).

2.2. Monophysite Churches

Sometime after the council of Ephesus another school of thought emerged, this time in the Church of Alexandria, known as the Alexandrian School. In opposition to the ‘Nestorian’ stress on the diversification or duality of the divine and the human natures in Jesus Christ, this school, under an Alexandrian monk called Eutyches, taught that in Jesus Christ there is only one nature (monophysis), the divine nature. According to him, the human nature of Jesus ceased to exist when the divine person assumed it just as a drop of honey falling into the sea dissolves in it.

This school was fond of speaking of the one nature of God, the word incarnate, to designate the one person of the Word. This teaching was known as ‘Monophysitism’ [one nature]. The immediate consequence would be to call into question the truth of the incarnation and the consubstantiality of Christ’s humanity with ours, especially with regard to his redemptive sacrifice on the cross. Monophysitism was rejected by the council of Chalcedon in 451 C.E., which declared that in Christ there is a single person in two natures, without confusion or mixture (ND, no.614, 615).

However, some Churches did not accept the Caledonian formula on the plea that it goes back to the ‘Nestorian heresy’ of separation of the two natures. These Churches are known as the non-Caledonian Churches or Monophysite Churches because of their non-acceptance of the Caledonian formula. Today they are also called ‘Eastern Orthodox Churches’, and are not in communion with the Patriarchate of Constantinople. These are the Armenian Apostolic Church, Coptic Orthodox Church, Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Syrian Orthodox Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, and Eritrean Orthodox Church.

A common declaration between pope Paul IV and Patriarch Mar Yacob III of the Syrian Orthodox Church is 1971 declares: “there is no difference in the faith they profess concerning the Mystery of the Word of God made flesh and become really man, even if over the centuries difficulties have risen out of the different theological expressions by which this faith expressed” (AAS 63[1971], 814; cf. Chia, 125).

2.3. Orthodox Churches

A third blow to the ancient communion of Churches was the rupture that the ancient communion of Churches was the rupture that took place about the beginning of the second millennium in the relation between the Eastern and Western Churches. The symbolic date commonly given to this event is 16 July, 1054 C.E., when the delegates of Pope Leo IX (who had died three months earlier!) and Patriarch Michael Cerularius Of Constantinople mutually excommunicated each other on the question of the unilateral acceptance by the Pope of the insertion of the Latin Filoque (“and from the Son”) into the originally Greek Niceno-Constantinople Creed. [In fact, a clarification by the Pontifical Council for Christian Unity of 13 September 1995, issued the following clarification on the filioque controversy: The creed with the ‘filoque’ insertion is only a liturgical adaptation of the Nicene Creed but the Greek original without the insertion remains for all Churches the normative text of the Christian Trinitarian faith](ND, pp. 161-162).

But this question of the filoque was only the proverbial last straw in the gradual separation between the Latin West and the Greek East with different theological styles, which had already begun at least a couple of centuries earlier. The division had been influenced by the fall of Roman Empire in the fifth century, the cultural and political distancing of the Eastern and Western parts of the old empire, the eruption of the Germanic tribes in the North and of the Islamic power in the East.

One marked feature, specially developed in the Byzantine circles, was the understanding of the Church as a “Conciliar Fellowship” based on the Eucharist as the source and centre of the unity of all Local Churches, which are ‘autocephalous’ (self-governing). In this conciliarity, the Church Rome or Constantinople holds only a primacy of honour and not of jurisdiction. On the other hand, the ecclesiology that was developing in the West was centred on the power of the Pope as the Supreme Head of the Church. The ecclesiology of the Orthodox Churches, which is of autocephalous model, gave less importance to the primacy, infallibility and jurisdiction of the Pope as the successor of Peter. Today the Patriarchate of Constantinople is called Ecumenical Patriarchate, which includes many national Churches with varying degrees of ecclesiastical status in autonomy. These are designated as “Orthodox Churches”. Their positions are enumerated below:

Autocephalous Churches: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem,

Russia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Georgia, Cyprus, Greece, Poland, Albania, Czech & Slovak Republic, America.

Autonomous Churches: These do not have full independence. They are the Mount Sinai, Finland, Japan, and China.

Canonical Churches, which have a special link with the Patriarch of Constantinople by receiving the Holy Chrism and confirmation of their bishops from Constantinople: Carpatho-Russian Orthodox, Ukrainian American, Russian, Western Europe, Albanian American, Byelorussia in North America, Ukrainian in Canada, Ukrainian in U.S.A.

Churches of Irregular Statues: Old believers, Russian Orthodox outside Russia, Ukrainian-Kiev Patriarchate & Ukrainian Autocephalous, Byelorussian Autocephalous (Chia, 125-126).

3. Modern Division: The protestant Reformation

Much more than by the schism of the East and West, the unity of the Church was seriously shaken by the Reformation that took place in Europe in the middle of the second millennium. Not all the reasons were theological. With the invention of the press and growth in education there emerged the humanism of the Renaissance and a new middle class, made powerful by the economic prosperity arising from commerce especially with the newly discovered colonies. There was also a growth of national consciousness all over Europe and a strengthening of the power of the royal houses of political power as against the power of the clergy. Such economic and social factors explain in part resistance to the Roman influence on Northern Europe. These factors need to be studies in course on Church History. There was also a long-standing call within the Church for a reform of customs and specially those of the Papal Court. The proverbial last straw was the preaching about papal “indulgences” to finance the construction of the Renaissance churches in Rome.

3.1. The Lutheran Church

In Germany, Martin Luther’s protest in 1517 against the scandal of indulgences did not aim at dividing Church but at reforming it. But when in 1521 he was both excommunicated by the Pope and outlawed by the German Emperor, his theological positions hardened. In the doctrine of “justification by faith alone”, Luther saw a new understanding. The Church is not identifiable through external acts of religion. It is a community, which has one mind and heart of faith. In other words, the Church is found where “the gospel is rightly taught and the sacraments are rightly administered according to the Gospel” (Article seven of Augsburg Confession).

In such a Church the ministerial priesthood is not essentially different from the common priesthood of the faithful. The episcopacy does not differ from the presbyteriate and the papacy is not required. The veneration of saints, penitential acts, popular devotions, pilgrimages, etc., are contrary to the New Testament teaching on “justification by faith alone and not by works.” Furthermore, in the understanding of the Eucharist as sacrifice, Luther repudiated the concept of transubstantiation.

Although Luther wanted only to reform the Church, the division became inevitable when the German princes backed the reform movement as a way of ridding themselves of the power of the emperor and the political control of the pope. Moreover, the Church’s hierarchy was not ready to implement the necessary changes. Thus we have the Lutheran Churches. In 1947 these churches formed a Lutheran World Federation, which now has more than a hundred member churches and its secretariat headquarters in Geneva (ibid, 127; Goosen, 74).

3.2. The reformed Presbyterian churches

The reform movement begun by Luther was carried still by his contemporaries Huldreich Zwingli in Zurich and John Calvin in Geneva. Zwingli did away with much of the ceremonial and externals of religion and developed a new order of liturgy, which consisted principally of scripture, sermon and prayer: the bread and wine were no longer placed on an altar but on a bare table in the nave of the church. Whereas, in the line with Catholic thinking, Luther insisted that Christ is bodily present in the Eucharist (the word “is” to be taken literally), Zwingli regarded the Eucharist as no more than a commemorative service in which a community shows allegiance t Christ and remembers gratefully the event of the cross. He argued that the physical reception of a spiritual gift is impossible (Chia, 127; Gossen, 75-79).

Later on, Calvin set out to write a definitive treatise on the nature of the church according to the Reformation principles: The institutes of the Christian Religion. He taught that Christ imparted to the Church the gift of the fourfold ministry of pastors, teachers (or doctors), elders (or presbyters) and deacons. The doctrine of “predestination,” more characteristic of Calvin but actually developed by his followers, speaks of the ‘divine decree” to either eternal life or to death, bases on God’s infinite foreknowledge. Thus the teachings of Zwingli and Calvin took a distinct turn vis-à-vis Lutheranism.

The churches subscribing to these teachings came to be referred to as Reformed or Presbyterian Churches. In 1875 a world Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) was formed which today links close to 200 churches fro the Reformed Presbyterian tradition.

3.3. The Radical Reformation

Still in the same 16^th century, the Reformation initiated by Luther passed into the third phase, which can be called Racial Reformation. These radical reformers saw the identity of the Church as involving a complete break with anything suggestive of a Roman and Papist connection. They also emphasize a commitment to the pursuit of personal holiness leading to the believer’s baptism (therefore, for rejecting the validity of infant baptism, accepted by most other Churches). Another distinctive feature is the separation of Church members from the world affairs; small groups gatherings for the study of the Word, prayer and the breaking of Bread along the languages of the New Testament “house communities”. The Hutterites, the Mennonites, the religious Society of Friends (Quakers), the seventh Adventists and the Disciples of Christ were the first to begin the radical reform.

3.4. The Anglican Church

 The fourth Phase of the reformation was the change that took place in England in the same century. After resisting the influence of the reformation for a number of years Henry VIII decided for personal reasons to break his ties with the Pope. After this the Church of England has understood itself as a sort of Via Media between Catholicism and Protestantism, acknowledging the necessity of scripture, tradition and reason in opposition to the protestant reliance on scripture alone. However, the Roman Catholic Church declared the Anglican orders null and void in 1896. Today the Anglican Communion is made up of 37 autonomous national Churches, all of them in communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury (Gossen, 80-81).

4. New Churches of Reformed Tradition

The fifth phase of the reformation could be seen, between the 17^th and 20^th centuries, in the emergence of renewal movements within Anglicanism and the Reformed Churches This resulted in the creation the Baptists, Methodists, Salvation Army, the Evangelical and the Pentecostal Churches.

Thus by the end of the second millennium we are presented with a divided Church: the Eastern Church itself composed of a variety of autonomous or semi-autonomous churches, and the western Church divided into many different bodies, each claiming to be the true Church of Christ. The former group if often referred to in a general way as the “oriental Churches,” some of which, however, are in communion with Rome are generally designated as the “protestant Churches.” Some of the smaller and recent groups of the firth phase of the reformation are at times called “sects” in distinction with the “mainline Churches” which are older and characterized by theological positions that take more seriously the faith traditions of the Church.

4.1. Congregational Churches

Another important group, which developed under the Puritan influence, is the Congregational Churches. They came into existence in England between 1580 and 1590 under the leadership of Robert Browne, John Greenwood and Henry Barrow. Having a “congregational” notion of church, they vision the church as a freely gathered community in a particular place. Each congregation is self- governing and independent. Thus, in the earlier days they were known as “independency” or “independents.” The congregation is free to choose its ministers and to formulate its liturgies, prayers, etc. A group of congregation migrated to North America is 1620 and were responsible for found in Harvard and Yale Universities. Congregationalists have ordained pastors but without an Episcopal system. They practice the two sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist. They believe in the real spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist. They are not very numerous today, and many Congregationalists have need into the United Churches (Chia, 129).

 

4.2. The Rise of Free Churches

The aftermath of the Protestant Reformation of the 16^th century saw the proliferation of Christian denominations, free Churches and Sects in England and Europe. The break-up of medieval Christendom and the rise of nationalism provide the context for the development of these new Churches. These Churches then spread to America mainly through missionary activities and the emigration of peoples. The term “sect” is used to distinguish these new Churches from the more established mainline churches. No derogatory connotation is alluded whatsoever.

4.2.1. The Baptist

The Baptist Church had its origins in 17^th century England, with Puritanism as background. When the Puritans were persecuted in England many of them took refuge in Europe, especially in Holland. John Smith (1554-1612) and Thomas Helwys (1550-1616), who were also refugees, became their leaders. When the climate became conducive, they returned to England where they founded the Baptist Congregations. They are called Baptist in view of their specific doctrine of Baptism. Like the Anabaptists they reject infant Baptism and insist on adult Baptism by immersion.

In view of the difference which emerged with regard to the doctrine predestination, several divisions have evolved and they go by names such as General Baptists, Particular Baptists, etc., The American and British, particular Baptists are the most influential divisions. Baptists are organized on completely democratic lines, with emphasis on the principle of religious freedom. Infant baptism, they believe, infringes upon the freedom of the child. They practice the two sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist and have ordained ministers, but not one the Episcopal system. The total number of Baptists in the world today probably exceeds 50 million (ibid).

4.2.2. Congregational Churches

 Another important group, which developed under the Puritan influence, is the Congregational Churches. They came into existence in England between 1580 and 1590 under the leadership of Robert Browne, John Greenwood and Henry Barrow. They envisioned that the Church is freely gathered community in a particular place. Therefore it is a Congregation. Each congregational is self-governing and independent. Thus, in the earlier days they were known as “independents.” The Congregationalists migrated to North American 1620 and were responsible for founding Harvard and Yale Universities. Congregationalists have ordained pastors but without an Episcopal system. They practice the two sacraments of baptism and Eucharist. They believe in the real and spiritual presence of the Christ in the Eucharist. They are not very numerous today, and many Congregationalists have merged into the United Churches (ibid).

4.2.3. The Quakers or The Society of Friends

The Quakers had their origins in England in the middle of the 17^th century when Puritanism reached its climax. They repudiated all ecclesiastical institutions and called themselves “seekers” as they expected a new prophet to be sent by the Holy Spirit. George Fox (1924-1691) emerged as their leader. He underwent a conversation and became an itinerant preacher, announcing the Gospel of “the inner light.”

According to Quakers, to be a Christian meant to possess “the inner light” and thus to be born again in the Holly Spirit. The Quakers were known to have attacked all the organized Churches and repudiated the practice of the sacraments and even questioned the absolute authority of the Scriptures. The only authority they submit to is that of “the inner life,” which they believe to be nothing more than the Holy Spirit. The Quakers are also well known in their fight for humanitarian causes. They received the nickname “Quakers ” probably from the phenomenon of quaking or shivering during their prayer sessions. They rejected ordained ministries. They have silent meetings which they call “waiting upon the Light.” They are strong in their witness to the freedom of Spirit and the personal inner experience, which they see as the essence of religion (ibid, 130).

4.2.4. The Methodists

The Methodist Church emerged from a revivalism within the Anglican Church. John Wesley (1703-1791) led the Methodist movement who was a fellow at Lincoln College, Oxford. At Oxford, Wesley and some of his friends formed a Holy Club and led a very strict and methodical life; whereupon they were given the nickname “Methodists.” Earlier as an Anglican missionary to America, Wesley had become acquainted with the Moravian Brethren and was deeply influenced by them. Upon his return to England, Wesley experienced a spiritual conversion in 1738, after which, he went around preaching revival. He founded several Methodist Societies or Associations, which then became a separate Church upon Wesley’s death.

Methodism spread rapidly in the Americas and to many of the English speaking countries. Some Methodist Churches became Episcopalian while others followed non-Episcopal forms of ministry. Sanctity of believers (Methodist Holiness) consists in a strict and rigorous life and spontaneous prayers in liturgy.  Following the practice of the Moravian Brethren, they also adopted the Agape meals or “the love feasts.” Today, the Methodist number about 40 Million (ibid).

4.2.5. The Disciples of Christ

The idea of One Ecumenical Church based on New Testament Christianity was preached in North America by two Irish Presbyterian (Calvinist) Pastors, Thomas Campbell (1763-1854) and his son, Alexander Campbell (1788-1866). It was a call for Church unity on the basis of the fundamentals such as, adult Baptism, the Bible as the sole authority, and faith in Christ. The movement brought together many from the Presbyterian and Baptist circles. But later, the movement became a separate Church, they are also known as the “Churches of Christ.” They are a small group today, present mainly in the English-speaking world (ibid).

4.2.6. The Old Catholics

They are a group separated from the Roman Catholic Church immediately after the First Vatican Council in 1870.  Ignaz von Doellinger led the Old Catholics movement. Ignaz was professor of Church History in the University of Munich, Germany. The Old Catholics Church rejected the first Vatican’s definition of Papal Infallibility. In 1872, they held a congress in Koeln, Germany, and organized themselves under the name of the Old Catholic Church teachings, practices, and ministries. The adherents of this Church eventually adopted also some Protestant teachings and customs. They are a very small group found mainly in Germany and Holland (ibid).

4.3. New Christian Sects and Movements

The nineteenth and twentieth centuries witnessed a wave of Christian sects and movements. The majority of these new sects originated in the western world, especially, in the United States of America in the new climate of freedom and experimentation. The people’s dissatisfaction with the scientific and secular culture coupled with the inability of the established mainline Churches to respond adequately to these dissatisfactions also provided the impetus for the emergence of these sects. It has to be emphasized from the outset that the term “set” is not used here with any projective connotation. It is merely a distinction made between these new Churches and movements and the more established mainline Churches. This dissatisfaction, it is acknowledged, is still a subject of much debate. The following are some of the New Christian Communities (sects) and Movements. 

4.3.1. The Holy Catholic-Apostolic Church

This sect which called itself as the “Holy catholic Apostolic Church” had its beginning in England and Scotland in the early 1930s. It was a result of the revivalism among the Anglicans. Prayer circles were formed for a new outpouring of the Holy Spirit led by the Henry Drummond, Headword Irving and others. This sect is also sometimes called “Irvingites. “ In these prayer groups the members experienced the gift of prophecy, gift of tongues and other signs much like those given in the primitive apostolic age. They also developed strong convictions about the immediate Second Coming of Christ, believing Christ Would establish a thousand – year reign of peace.

As a preparation for this, they sought to re-establish the apostolic structure and ministry of the Early Church. Thus, in 1935 they chose the “12 Apostles” as the successor of the earliest apostles. These 12 were assigned definite regions and countries for their new mission. Hence the sect became known as the “ Catholic Apostolic Community or Church”. They also adopted elements from the Catholic Church, charismatic and Apocalyptic or Adventist Church of the last days (ibid, 131).

With the death of the last of their 12 apostles a crisis set in, as the Second Coming of Christ had not occurred. A debate ensued as to whether they should appoint new apostles. This led to the formation of “The New Apostolic Church” in North Germany where new Apostles were appointed and a revival took place. There are various groups of these “Apostolic Sects” today in different parts of the world and they number a little more two million.

4.3.2. Brethren   

The origin of the Brethren was in Dublin (Ireland) and Plymouth (England). The most important desire of this Church Community (Sect) is that of simplicity in Christian fellowship over against the institutional and authoritarian structures of the Church of England. By 1833 John Nelson Darby became their leader, and hence they were also known as “Darbyites.”

Filled with the apocalyptic fervour of the Second Coming of Christ, Darby desired to unite people of all denominations to await the return of the Lord. But gradually the members became a separate group with a pietistic, fundamentalist and Adventist out look. They practice adult baptism and the Lord’s Supper, which can be presided over by any member of the community and not necessarily by an ordained minister.